Have you ever discovered that a personal hero of yours – or someone you regard as a strong influence on your life – had also been a decisive influence on a person of whom you really disapprove? There are, I think, people whose intellectual influences one would prefer not to share. It’s how one might feel, for example, on finding the great novelist Tolstoy acclaimed by Vladimir Lenin as the founder of socialist realism and a prophet of ‘the Soviet man’ – or the composer Richard Wagner being celebrated by the National Socialists as one of their own.
Our instinctive reaction, I suspect, is to assume that the work of that great thinker (or composer) has been exploited for purposes they themselves could not have imagined. For all that, one cannot help wondering if there was not something about the work of that thinker, as compared with others of their time and place, that lent itself to their being appropriated in that way.
This is much how I feel about the eccentric but penetrating social theorist, René Girard, being credited as a decisive personal influence in the life of the libertarian, and techno-eutopian, Peter Thiel – I mean the Peter Thiel whose apparently right-wing convictions recently inspired him to support the campaign to place a heathenish nationalist (and climate-change denier) in the White House.
To be honest, I had long been vaguely aware of Thiel’s sponsorship of Girard’s ideas. In fact, I could even claim to have been an indirect beneficiary. Interested in sacrifice – and a possible dialogue on that topic between anthropology and Christian theology – I inevitably found myself drawn to perhaps the only theological arena in which such issues were being discussed. The supervisor of my PhD was Michael Kirwan, the writer of what I still believe to be the best introduction to Girard’s work, and an enthusiastic promoter of his influence in the theological domain. As for Thiel, I first heard the name mentioned in connection with Imitatio, a foundation he established. The sponsorship of that organization lay, like a benign paternal presence, behind the numerous conferences on Girard I attended at that time – though I cannot remember the man himself or his ideas ever being discussed. I was inclined to view literary interest in Girard as a potential, very welcome, bridgehead for Christian ideas into academe, and I suppose I felt similarly about Girard’s penetration into the world of billionaire Californian high tech.
More recently, however, Thiel entered the news with his sponsorship of the Trump electoral campaign. It was at that point I began to acquaint myself with Thiel’s political views, and, for the first time, became aware of the convictions of a man whose libertarian ideals appeared to epitomize what Tara Burton (Strange Rites) recently characterized as the elitist religion of Silicon Valley ‘Techno-eutopianism’ – even to the extent of its obsession with cryonics (low temperature preservation of one’s body for the purpose of revival).
In my own experience, the typical enthusiasts for Girardian ideas were Christians, generally Roman Catholic, seeking an alternative to the theology of penal substitution – people of, by and large, progressive convictions, and liberal – if not left-wing – politics. My own teacher, Michael Kirwan, for example, allied this enthusiasm with an interest in Liberation Theology.
So, my first reaction was to conclude that Thiel had abandoned his earlier Girardian faith along with any Christian engagement that might have entailed. What then was my surprise when further investigation revealed this apparently not to be the case!
This raised some alarming questions.
Techno-eutopianism and Girardian Christianity (or Christianity of any form) hardly seem likely bed-fellows. Was I to assume Thiel had simply borrowed elements from the theory of his former Stanford teacher and incorporated them into a fundamentally alien religious and ethical vision – a process involving the jettison of other elements crucial to the coherence of the original theory (including, presumably, the Christian aspects)? Or was Girard himself not the thinker I remembered? Was Girard’s message inadequately Christian in the first place, and consequently open to appropriations of the kind it seemed to have been subjected to in this case? Either way, I couldn’t not be curious about the spiritual and political path that might lead you from Girardian Christianity to whatever Thiel had ended up with. How much had got jettisoned – and at what points – along the way? How much of what was jettisoned – or retained – was properly Christian?
These are the questions I shall be addressing in this blog. In the course of it I shall be discussing Thiel’s own publications. However, in order for render this discussion intelligible to those who have not read Girard, I first need to give an outline of Girard’s mimetic theory.
What Girard says
For the purposes of presentation, the theory can best be broken down into three basic elements.
The first concerns the mimetic nature of human desire. According to Girard, we do not select the objects of our desires autonomously, but must always have those objects designated to us by the desire of others who become our models. Unchecked mimesis tends ultimately to a murderous rivalry of all against all – a state of violent reciprocity, which is the antithesis of all society.
This leads to the second element of the theory: sacrifice. Girard theorizes that, for some kind of social order to take root, there must have been a historical moment when the murderous desires of conflicting individuals converged simultaneously on a single victim. The elimination of that individual brought peace through the instantaneous removal of the apparent cause of conflict. Girard claims that the institution of the social order dates back to that moment. Subsequently, the community thereby inaugurated, recalls and affirms its identity in collective actions recapturing the foundational moment of scapegoating through collective acts and shared narratives. But those acts and narratives (the rituals and myths of our public religions) retell the original moment in a manner that misrepresents, and conceals, the true nature of the scapegoating event. Religious myths retrospectively credit the victim with the socially beneficial effects of his/her death, thereby divinizing them as founder of the social order which owes it inauguration to their sacrificial death. Indeed, for Girard, the very stability of the social order rests on the mythical concealment of the truth of salvific violence from the beneficiaries of its perpetrators.
Girard’s theory, as we have described it, speaks of certain universals of the human condition – mimesis & sacrifice – and their implications for the establishment of archaic society and religion. This raises the question of their apparent irrelevance to contemporary Western society. If Girard is correct about the centrality of sacrifice to human social and political institutions, then why is it that in the case of modern Western societies alone, such practices appear to have become largely obsolescent? What accounts for the difference between archaic societies and our own?
This brings us to the third element of the theory: biblical revelation. According to Girard. the biblical texts themselves offer a deconstructive reading of myth. That reading lays bare the workings of the scapegoat mechanism – waveringly in the early stages, but with increasing clarity as we move from Old Testament to the New. In fact, the biblical narratives, which appear to occupy an equivalent place to the myths of pagan religions, work to the opposite effect. Pagan myths engender a socially beneficial misunderstanding of the scapegoating event; the biblical narratives puncture the mythical deception in order to reveal the truth of the scapegoating event that underlies them. Revelatory truth speaks through those heroes of scripture who, like Job, resist the role of divine victim that the mythical discourse of an emerging sacrificial community threatens to thrust upon them, and manifest the reality of human victimhood behind the spurious sacralizations of myth. Finally, in the person of Christ, God is seen to put Himself in the place of the victim, and by holding both positions – God and victim – simultaneously without relinquishing either, unmasks the sacrificial deception that represses their essential identity.
Where does Girard get the evidence for this theory?
The concern with human origins suggests social anthropology. Yet it would, on the whole, be fair to say Girard’s theory owes relatively little to ethnographic studies by social anthropologists. In fact, it owes more to his interpretation of the core texts of the Western literary canon – the texts Girard would have taught as a professor at Stanford University. His notion of mimetic desire derives from an interpretation of Shakespeare and the ‘greats’ of Western literature: Cervantes, Flaubert, Dostoyevsky, Proust, etc. As for sacrifice (the second element), Girard makes some reference to social anthropologists like Luc de Heusch; but he chiefly relies on the works of the Greek tragedians, and certain narratives of the Old Testament. This reflects the fact that the rituals and myths known to ethnographers are, as Girard would see it, misrepresentations of the original scapegoating event. There are common features of such narratives. But the best evidence of their ‘misrepresentational’ function emerges in texts that have begun to re-write these narratives de-constructively – that is to say, in the Bible and certain texts of Greek tragedy that anticipate the Bible’s deconstruction of pagan myth. When it comes to revelation (the third element), Girard’s argument makes reference, once again, primarily to texts – namely, biblical ones. He evidently believes the Christian revelation to have been at best been only very falteringly embodied in specifically Christian institutions; indeed, it is unclear if he believes institutions are even possible without scapegoating.
Overall, then, Girard spends little time seeking evidence of his theory in the contemporary world (though some of his followers, e.g. Gil Baillie, have attempted to rectify this). It is true, of course, that, according to the theory, biblical revelation has entirely disabled the old scapegoating mechanism, so it there is no longer any evidence of its functioning to be discovered in the modern world. Yet, Girard also claims, that out world, now stripped of its former sacrificial defences, confronts an apocalyptic scenario of escalating violence. One would have expected there to be historical and sociological evidence of this alarming situation. But Girard shows relatively little interest in collecting it. Perhaps, as with the implications of his theory in the theological sphere, he is content to delegate that task to others.
This gives considerable latitude to those followers of Girard (like Thiel himself) who want to develop mimetic theory. And it gives heightened importance to the few passages of the Girardian oeuvre where a critique of contemporary society does seem to emerge. These seem particularly relevant when it comes to evaluating the reception of Girard’s ideas by people like Thiel who are more interested in contemporary culture than the cultures of long ago. Chief among these passages are the four chapters which conclude Girard’s 2001 book, I See Satan Fall Like Lightening. If anyone – up until quite recently – had asked me to recommend a piece of social analysis that illuminated the polarized cultural politics of today, I would without hesitation have referred them to these chapters. In what follows, I shall be using them as a touchstone against which to evaluate Thiel’s Girardian credentials.
But there is another respect in which the reliance of Girard on the Western canon may also have been relevant to the reception of his ideas by Thiel – to whose published views I shall now turn.
The first of the two books that Thiel has co-authored – The Diversity Myth (1998), in collaboration with David Sacks – offers a damming account of the development of university campus multiculturalism at Stanford University from 1987 into the early nineties. The changes began with a reorientation of the university humanities curriculum, in response to radical student agitation, away from the traditional canon so as to include books which reflected the experiences of minority groups. Given the dependence of mimetic theory on the books of the canon, one can understand how its proponents would have reacted. From their perspective such changes were a blow struck against the cultural authority of the very texts on which Girard had relied for the justification of his theory – and, to add insult to injury, at the very university where they would have first encountered Girard.
Neither of the books are the kind of title one would expect to see promoted at an academic conference on Girard. The Diversity Myth rarely looks beyond events at Stanford. It might be assumed the authors saw these events as typical of what was happening elsewhere at the time, but they don’t say it in so many words. Still, the book feels like a case study. The second, more recent book, Zero to One (2014), is one of those guides to how to succeed in business – a somewhat quirky example of a genre of literature that begins with Dale Carnegie and now fills a shelf or two at your local Waterstones.
In the following paragraphs, I shall give a short account of what these two publications owe – or don’t owe – to Girardian theory, and assess the validity of their arguments. I shall then go on to revisit Girard’s classic text, I See Satan Fall Like Lightening in the light of the application of mimetic theory Thiel has developed in these two books.
The Diversity Myth
The changes made in the humanities curriculum in response to student activism give rise to an attempt to model the multicultural agenda of the new curriculum at the practical organizational level of student life. This ‘social engineering’ entails, on the individual level, the cultivation of multicultural awareness, with the establishment of student living arrangements reflecting the recognition of certain distinct identities (‘Black’, ‘Hispanic’, etc.). Much of the book is concerned with charting, in laborious detail, the implementation of this ideological agenda through a whole series of ‘incidents’ involving the enforcement of political correctness in the student body.
Thiel argues that the process described is, in reality, less about recognizing identities than about creating them. It involves the moulding of identities through imposing beliefs; it is, in other words, an ideological process. The practices by which this is achieved are, for Thiel, a text-book example of what Girard calls scapegoating. This is where mimetic theory comes in.
Obviously, scapegoating, in this contemporary, post-Christian, setting, doesn’t imply the full operation of the sacrificial mechanism that Girard associates with the religious rituals and myths of the archaic world (as described above). Girard himself insists that would now, in a post-Christian, post-revelation era, no longer be possible. So, what does Thiel mean scapegoating in this context?
We will find the answer to that question in those concluding chapters of I See Satan.
Here, Girard describes the situation we see today, where social solidarity depends on the mobilization of what Girard terms ‘concern for the victim’. This is characteristic of the operation of scapeutgoating in modern (as opposed to archaic) societies, and constitutes a deformed reflection of Christian agapeic love, distinctive of our christianized, but no longer Christian, age. We side with ‘victims’ everywhere, but always designate others, not ourselves, as their victimizers. In effect, this ‘scapegoats’ the victimizers, and so short-circuits the process by which individual actions of scapegoating across a whole community converge in the focus on a single victim. Without that convergence, scapegoating cannot bring the authentic moral certainty, or the clear socio-political definitions, provided by the consummation of scapegoating in an act of sacrifice.
On a theoretical level, Thiel’s account of the multicultural identity politics of Stanford offers an extended case-study of the contemporary operation of the sacrificial mechanism such as Girard himself was some years later to describe it in I Saw Satan. For convenience sake, I shall call it the truncated mechanism. Unlike properly religious identities, those constituted by the operation of the truncated mechanism are shown to be inherently unstable. They require a constant series of scandals, and a constant flow of victims, in order to be maintained. Where scandals do not occur, they have to be engineered in order to ensure the survival of the identities. Hence the excitable ethos of Stanford campus life.
So Thiel is very much on the same page as Girard when it comes to the methodology he applies. Events at Stanford seem to bear out the theory as Girard was to set it out so cogently in I See Satan.
But it is also relevant to our appraisal of Thiel’s debt to Girard that it consistently attributes scapegoating practices to progressive, as opposed to conservative, political forces. Does the seemingly anti-progressive bias of Thiel’s treatment of scapegoating forestall his later political alignment in contexts where the issue is no longer multiculturalism but the larger, more inclusive, phenomenon we know today as woke? After all, the multiculturalism of Stanford looks rather like a dress-rehearsal for ‘woke’. So, why would he not have applied the same illuminating analysis to the analogous, but enormously more diversified, radicalism of the identity politics of today?
Given Thiel’s evidently anti-progressive stance both then and now, this poses, for us, the question of whether the sociological model that Thiel has adapted from Girard (faithfully, so it would seem), is itself responsible for his right-wing political stance; or whether Thiel’s politics originates elsewhere, and has influenced his application of mimetic theory.
On the face of it, there are reasons to suspect the latter.
Try applying the model to the online culture wars of today in the manner that Thiel himself applies it to the multiculturalism of the 90s, and, as I have already indicated, one is no less impressed by its explanatory power. But it illuminates a political situation in which the strategy of politically correct victimization is no less apparent on the right of the political spectrum as on the left. Unlike Stanford’s multiculturalist radicals, the SJWs of today don’t need to provoke scandals in order to shore up their political identity; opportunities for such affirmation are abundantly provided by their right-wing adversaries. And the latter appear to require these scandals quite as much as the SJWs in order to maintain their own identity (as the victimized male, white, straight, middle-class majority) through designating victimizers on the left. Indeed, the resulting conflict exemplifies mimetic theory in ways that Stanford’s multiculturalism does not. With the culture wars we see that self-sustaining cycle of retributive victimization Girard describes elsewhere, as well as the tendency of adversaries in such mimetic struggles to come increasingly to resemble each other. Why wouldn’t any Girardian, then, assume the identity politics of the right to be as amenable as that of the left to analysis in terms of the truncated scapegoating?
Of course, Thiel’s bias may go back to the specifics of the situation it describes – namely, Stanford university campus life. Perhaps, the culture of university campuses of that era preceded the emergence of that full-throated political opposition to left-wing radicalism that we see so widely manifested online in the anti-woke politics of today’s Republicans. If so, this would, of course, narrow the generalizability of Thiel’s case-study, and its relevance to contemporary identity politics. Actually, however, I think the text of The Diversity Myth provides evidence that something more is at issue.
That ‘something more’ emerges at the point in the book where the authors express genuine bewilderment at the apparently uncontended nature of the ethnic identities assumed by multiculturalism and the sharpness of their definition. Why, for example, Blacks, Hispanics, but not, say, Irish Americans?
The explanation given is that these categories go back to the leftwing political radicalism of the sixties – for which identity politics is, so we learn, no more than ‘a front’. It turns out, then, that multiculturalism is just the most recent transformation of the left wing radicalism of the past, rather than the forerunner of an identity politics that resists analysis in terms of left and right. Such a view is by no means untenable. Other analysts have viewed both multiculturalism and woke in these terms. However, Thiel’s preference for an explanation of identity politics that renders it secondary to leftwing radicalism – when a more natural interpretation of Girard’s mimetic theory would see identity politics as transcending left and right – arouses the suspicion his commitment to Girardian theory has given way to influences that do not derive from Girard.
Always supposing, of course, that we don’t find in the work of Girard himself some prior justification for Thiel’s identification of identity politics with the political left.
Zero to One
We come now to Thiel’s 2014 best-seller. The sub-titles say it all: ‘Notes on Startups or How to Build the Future’. The book purports to be a manual for entrepreneurs, based in Thiel’s personal experience, yet fearlessly generalizes its conclusions to the future of the human race. The boldness of the whole thing rather takes the breath away. True, our understanding of the world inevitably begins with our own experience – and I wouldn’t wish to underestimate the importance of Silicon Valley. Still, it’s remarkable the degree to which IT start-ups are here represented as epitomizing technological innovation – or even human creativity itself.
Thiel’s approach to mimetic theory through his own life experience is also one of the attractive features of the book. It is an experience with which I personally – and, I suspect, many of the book’s readers – will strongly identify. He explains how, as an elite law student at Stanford, he ‘got stuck in fierce rivalries with equally smart peers over conventional careers like management consulting and investment banking’. The education system, he claims, pushes our younger selves down a few conventional tracks, inducing an intense competitivity. This blinds us to the reality of a world which – as we discover subsequently and sometimes too late – is far wider, more diverse, and contains many more out-of-the-way opportunities than we formerly imagined. Given our future happiness could depend on the discovery of these opportunities, being sidelined from the epicentres of this all-consuming rivalry (through failure) can turn out to be an advantage. At all events, something of the kind seems to have occurred in the case of Thiel himself, who admits to having narrowly missed winning the coveted prize of a Supreme Court clerkship. With hindsight, he comments, ‘winning that ultimate competition ‘would have changed my life for the worse’. ‘I would have spent my whole life drafting other people’s business deals, instead of creating anything new’.
According to Thiel, this experience reflects something deeper in our culture: a system of beliefs that we take for granted, but which appears stranger the more seriously we think about it. Why, for example, do economists and entrepreneurs see competition as a good thing, and why do they exult in the language of warfare and the struggle for survival – even though ‘the more we compete, the less we gain’? There is no logic here, says Thiel. We up against a fundamental ideology of our times: the ideology of competition. Its practical outcome is conformity; when we model our desires on those of our peers, and focus on the ‘the tried and true’, everybody ends up engaging in a zero-sum struggle over ready-constituted sources of value.
As an alternative, Thiel proposes creative monopoly. Talented individuals and ‘great’ businesses, if they are able to find liberation from the prevailing ideology of competition, can divert their energies away from futile rivalry over existing sources of value, in order to devote themselves, far more productively, to creating new value. This is monopolistic to the extent those individuals and businesses get on with doing their own thing – with being monopolists in a domain they have constituted for themselves.
There is a moral dimension to all this, which involves a certain orientation towards the future. The path of creative monopoly requires a faith in the possibility of new things coming about, and of human agency in that process. By contrast, the ideology of competition (think of those elite Stanford law students) results in a struggle over the division of existing economic and cultural spoils. The latter is, to this extent, devoid of longer-term goals and fixated on the present. In practice, the cultivation of any specific excellence depends upon the determination of a goal in the attaining of which excellence is required. So, the loss of genuine faith in anything to be positively achieved, tends to go along with the ‘port-folio’ approach to education we see in the existing system where young people collect skills and qualifications, in an aimless fashion, as ‘options’ for however the future might turn out. This is effectively to hedge one’s bets – an attitude that acquiesces in the role of ‘luck’ and treats our educational assets as a lottery ticket. To this cult of fortune on the part of the existing ideology of competition, Thiel opposes the doctrine of positive optimism and human agency required for any genuine achievement.
Finally, there is a political and economic dimension. Over the last 70 years, says Thiel, the West has moved from a culture that celebrated political and technological ‘big thinking’ (think Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, and the ‘space race’) to a society of actionaries and petty bureaucrats. Thiel sees this narrowing of aspiration as synonymous with globalization, which, in his view, extends existing technological assets ever more widely rather than increasing the sum of assets. The result will be ever fiercer competition between nations – unless this ‘horizontal’ development is matched by development along the ‘vertical’ axis of technological progress.
So much for theory. What does it owe to Girard?
Thiel’s argument combines a critique of contemporary Western culture (ideology of competition) with recommendations regarding an alternative path (creative monopoly). The negative side of this analysis largely consists in a restatement of Girard’s mimetic theory;the positive side – the recommendation of creative monopoly – seems to be Thiel’s own. Girard has little to offer on technology or even human creativity. But then he has little enough to offer in the way of positive recommendations of any kind – beyond calling us, in a general way, to the imitation of Christ, and delegating the task of explicating that notion to theologians. So, Thiel’s own efforts in this direction seem fair enough – as do those of theologians like Alison or Schwager.
There doesn’t seem anything about creative monopoly that is actually inconsistent with mimetic theory. In fact, there are two respects in which that notion, while evidently not itself present in mimetic theory as set out by Girard, makes constructive use of that theory.
First, Thiel clearly believes that any positive alternative to mimetic rivalry can only build within the space opened up by Christianity. The connection of technology with the imitation of Christ may not be immediately apparent; the book makes clear, however, that the increment of power over our collective destiny that technology brings us constitutes an essentially a good thing – a potential escape from the temptations of envy and competition, and a divinely ordained means to human thriving. While the short-termism of the ideology of competition is, for Thiel (as I think for Girard), the very essence of ‘sin’ (they use the term unashamedly), the possibilities of human creativity are claimed to be salvific, in a spiritual as well as a material sense.
Second, Thiel has a way of explicating the positive mimesis which may not have been stated by Girard in so many words, but makes sense within the framework of mimetic theory. Girard refers to the mediation of desire as more or less ‘external/internal’. All our desires are mediated through a third party or model: we desire what our model desires. But models differ in type in respect to distance. The closer that model to ourselves (an extreme instance would be a brother or best friend) the more intense the envy and competition; where the model is more distant, the intensity is reduced. Girard uses the example of Don Quixote who models himself not on a living contemporary, but on a knight from a new distant age – Amadis de Gaul. In this case, the attachment is no less real, but there is evidently no risk of conflict! God himself represents, for Thiel, the ultimate extreme of externalization. To the extent, we are ‘imitators of God’ we will be just as attached to our model, as others are to theirs; but in this case, the extreme distance of the model makes rivalry morally safe, and potentially productive for human good.
In both of these respects, I believe, the argument of Zero to One demonstrates an expansion and a creative application of mimetic theory beyond anything we find in the work of Girard himself – but one that remains broadly faithful to Girard’s own thinking. But where does the specific idea of creative monopoly come from?
Thiel himself would, I suspect, point to the theological framing of creative monopoly as the imitation of God and the way it evokes a heritage of Christian religious ideas he shares with Girard. Yet, the idea does not appear in Girard, and its Christian orthodoxy has been questioned. In the words of the journalist and author, Tara Burton, in a paper entitled, ‘The Gospel of Peter Thiel’:
There is no Christian tradition in which the provenance of creating out of nothing – ex nihilo – is not understood as the specific and unique prerogative of God, rather than a right afforded to human beings.
Is Burton correct here?
Well, yes and no. There is little doubt in my mind about the theological background from which ideas like creative monopoly actually come from. And, yes, it is not from the explicit doctrine of any existing church tradition. Like so much else in our culture, it derives ultimately, from the Romantic paradigm of ‘creativity’, which emerges in the latter half of the C18 and is nowadays pretty much the cultural air we breathe. That paradigm was – and still is – rooted in the practice of expressive art; but (as I and others have argued elsewhere) it has long since become a paradigm for human action in general. Technology, of course, long precedes the age of modernity; but in the sense Thiel attributes to it – as a ‘creative’ activity, and an activity directed not to preconceived human ends, but to the constant setting of fresh ends for its own accomplishment – it is absolutely an expression of the Romantic paradigm.
Whether Burton is right or wrong, then, depends ultimately on what view we take of the Romantic paradigm and its relation to orthodox Christianity. Suffice it say here, there have always been those who would see that paradigm as an acceptable expression of Christian belief – or even a necessary adaptation of it. So, I would hesitate to pronounce Thiel’s theology heretical.
But the real difficulty such ideas present for me – and, I suspect, most readers not already bought in to the politics of techno-eutopianism – derives primarily not from an objection to Thiel’s theology of the imitation of God per se, but from a related, but different aspect of his creative monopoly – an aspect that, unlike the theology, it shares with, and derives from, the mimetic theory of Girard. What disturbs us is something for which the Romantics could hardly be held to blame: namely, the exclusively technological nature of Theil’s definition of creativity as technology. Also, maybe, the narrowness of Thiel’s conception of technology.
Thiel’s understanding of creativity and technology seems exclusively focused on technical advances as opposed to social, political, or ethical innovations. One is prompted to ask why? Why is the progress of humankind evaluated in terms of the invention of ever smarter machines rather than in terms of, say, the evolution of ideas, or of political and social institutions? And, why does the potential response of modernity to such challenges of the future as over-population or environmental degradation have to consist in a technical ‘fix’, rather than innovations, say, in political governance, social organization, or popular education?
There could be multiple reasons in Thiel’s case for this fixation on the fix. But my interest here is in the degree to which the mimetic theory of Girard could be held to supply a ready pretext, both to ignore the social and political dimension of human progress, and for a wholesale rejection of the past. After all, are not our social and political structures, and, for that matter, the whole of human history, redolent, according to Girard, of an ultimately doomed culture of sacrificial scapegoating? It follows then that we should turn the page, as Thiel encourages us to do, and look, for salvation, to a future characterized non-sociologically in terms of technical progress.
For me, such reflections cast a retrospective light back on the core texts of Girard.
Back to Girard, I See Satan Fall from Heaven
It is the moment to return to I See Satan – which I believe to be the most relevant of these texts for our purposes. Both The Diversity Myth and I See Satan have caused me to read Girard’s text with fresh eyes. But the issues raised are very different in the two cases. I shall begin with the question of Girard’s political alignment with an anti-progressive agenda, as raised by Thiel’s critique of multiculturalism. I shall then return to the more fundamental question of what lends itself in Girard’s mimetic theory to the politics of techno-eutopianism.
I begin then with Girard’s seeming identification with the politics of the right.
When I first read I See Satan around 2010, the culture wars were already under way. In judging Girard to have been highly prescient of contemporary events, I saw ‘concern for the victim’ as – potentially – as much a driver of politics on the political right as on the left. It was already evident that those who identified with a beleaguered white, straight, middle-class, male hegemony were as capable of as their left-wing adversaries of taking up cudgels in support people they represented as political ‘victims’.
This still seems to me an interpretation consistent with the general drift of Girard’s theory as represented in this and earlier texts. But on my re-visiting I See Satan, with The Diversity Myth fresh in my mind, it struck me it was more capable than I had imagined of giving sustenance to a right-wing political stance, such as Thiel’s.
Girard himself speaks of Christianity as being – so he puts it – ‘outflanked’ on left and right. But this doesn’t mean quite we think might think it means. Actually, his use of the termology isn’t overtly political. By ‘left’ he is referring to a position which espouses the doctrine of concern for the victim while actively suppressing the understanding of its origin in the Christian revelation. By ‘right’, he is referring NOT to the mobilization of an identical doctrine in the interests of the dominant majority, but to the wholescale abandonment of the doctrine in favour of a naked assertion of might is right. The latter is, of course, the ideology of fascism, which Girard traces to the overtly anti-Christian philosophy of Nietzsche. There are few self-confessed fascists these days; but Girard attributes a ‘sanitized’ version of the same ideology to those ‘intellectuals’ for whom paganism (as opposed to Christianity) ‘continues to enjoy a reputation for transparency, sanity and health that nothing can shake’.
The problem of this as a way of laying out the arguments is that it leaves no place whatsoever to the kind of stance we would nowadays identify as that of the political right. The latter is not the ‘right’ of Nietzsche and fascism as Girard defines them above, but that of ‘concern for the victim’ as mobilized by the adversaries of woke. The effect of this omission, whatever Girard’s intention may have been, is the de facto association of the secularized ideology of concern for the victim with the radicalism of the left – a position that consequently replicates Thiel’s stance on multiculturalism, some ten years previously.
Second, there are passages in the concluding chapter of I See Satan that seem to imply, on Girard’s part, an anti-progressive, politically right-wing, stance unwarranted by the mimetic theory as he has expounded it.
Take, for example, the final page of chapter 14 where Girard speaks of the modern secular ideology of concern for the victim as ‘Antichrist’. This naturally poses the question, given the existence of two ideologies promoting an unveiling of the scapegoat mechanism (those of Christ and Antichrist), what constitutes the difference between between the two? What practical difference does it make whether or not we give due credit to Christianity as the origin of the revelation?
The theory, as set out by Girard elsewhere, has, effectively, already given us the answer to this question. The modern concern for the victim may derive from the Christian revelation; it does not follow that it gives us the fulness of that revelation. True, we have all acquired a moral sensibility of concern for the victim; but, equally, the secular world has evidently failed to acquire the equally Christian-derived revelation (as Girard would see it) of desire as mimetic. Whatever else may distinguish the modern concern for the victim from the Christian revelation as understood by Girard, surely the most important difference consists in modern society’s absolute belief in the autonomy of human desire!
Frankly, that is all Girard needed to say on the matter. But, instead of making the obvious point and leaving it at that, Girard goes on to distinguish the secular concern for the victim from Christian revelation – Antichrist from Christ – in terms of the disregard of the former for the ‘observance of the moral law’ and its rejection of ‘prohibitions’. Worse, he proceeds to find this disregard, on the part of the Antichrist, instantiated in ‘all sorts of pagan practices: abortion, euthanasia, sexual undifferentiation’.
Here, Girard is on very weak biblical ground. What is the Christian ‘moral law’, after all, if it is not simply love of God and the neighbour? Does not the ‘law’ of love fulfil the requirements of the Mosaic code, and render the prohibitions redundant? As for abortion and euthanasia, these practices are no doubt un-Christian, but they haven’t figured in the book hitherto, their relation to Girard’s argument remains unclear, and their invocation at this point would seem – given their prominence in American political rhetoric – to have more to do with the wholesale condemnation of left-wing radicalism than the clarification of the theoretical issues underlying the difference between secular and Christian versions of concern for the victim.
As for ‘sexual undifferentiation’, this may not be so marginal to Girard’s theoretical concerns. After all, gender differentiation could reasonably be considered a last hierarchical bastion against generalized social undifferentiation, and consequent violence. But Girard doesn’t – either here or elsewhere in his text – enlarge on the issue. And the reader is surely owed an explanation of why the author’s response to the undifferentation of sex/gender should differ so radically from his response to every other kind of undifferentiation brought about through the loss of effective scapegoating. In every other instance, Girard urges full Christian conversion as the only viable alternative to the escalation of violence resulting from increasing undifferentiation. Nowhere else does he counsel a return to the hierarchies of scapegoating religion – if for no reason because he believes such an attempt to be futile. It is, of course, axiomatic for Girard, that, where the Christian revelation is concerned, the genie simply cannot be returned to its bottle. Why, then, in the unique case of sexual undifferentiation, are we urged to shore up the defences of the doomed social order, rather than face up to the challenge of Christian evangelization?
Frankly, such passages, taken along with Girard’s failure even to mention the possibility of a radical secular ideology of concern for the victim on the political right, more than justify an anti-progressive reading of Girard’s text. In fact, they render it the most natural reading – and shift to those of us who would prefer a less politicized mimetic theory the burden of demonstrating the validity of our alternative position.
I come now to Zero to One and its narrowly technical definition of creativity and technology.
I believe this manifests, in exacerbated form, a feature of Girard’s mimetic theory that could be considered a weakness in his argument. This is the fact that what we might describe as the social and institutional dimension of human life is only ever explained in terms of sacrificial scapegoating. There is simply no indication in Girard’s text of any other possible means by which social and institutional structures could arise. It follows that such structures can only ever be a necessary evil. Even the Christian Church figures largely as a target of Girard’s critique, not an embodiment of an alternative mode of social and institutional organization.
This would pose less of a problem for mimetic theory if Girard didn’t also believe that Christianity offers a means of escape from this necessary evil. His belief that it does leaves us no alternative but to try and conceptualize the Christian life as a form of existence that somehow transcends the need for social or institutional structure. Is this – as I rather suspect – naive individualism on Girard’s part? Or are we supposed to imagine a form of life based entirely on one-to-one (interdividual) relationships? Is such a thing even conceivable? And, if it is, does that conception of human life bear any resemblance to human life as it has ever, in reality, been lived?
There is an instructive parallel here with another sociological theory of religion: that of the sociologist Emile Durkheim. The latter, like Girard, views the sacrificial mode of social and institutional reproduction as something that modern (as opposed to archaic) society has got beyond. But, unlike Girard, he accounts for the exceptional nature of modern society by positing an alternative mode of social organization (‘organic’) that distinguishes us from the sacrificial societies of the past (‘mechanical’). Girard’s problem is that he has no such alternative mode. He sees Christianity as an escape from scapegoating violence, yes; but conceptualizes Christianity only as revelation or ‘gnosis’: namely, the revelation or gnosis of scapegoating violence. So, on the one hand, we have the religions that offer mystificatory concealment for the operation of the scapegoating mechanism; on the other, the sole religion of Christianity which de-mystifies and unveils what all the other religions mystify and conceal.
This, so it would appear, is what Christianity brings of its own to the table of world religions. Girard does not appear to envisage any alternative, and positive, basis for social and institutional structure that would distinguish Christianity from pagan religion. The result is an account of Christianity that is non-sociological by default.
This panders to tendencies in modernity that we have already seen exemplified in Thiel. First, a hyper-individualism that doesn’t take seriously the possibility of collective agency, and can only understand the behaviour of families, companies, nations and other socio-political institutions in terms of an aggregates of individual interests. Girard, of course, does believe in such institutions. But because he sees them as the product of scapegoating practices that the salvation of humanity requires us to get beyond, it is, for all practical purposes, as though he didn’t believe in them. There is consequently little in his mimetic theory that would stand in the way of a libertarianism such as Thiel’s.
Second, there is the tendency in modern Western culture – probably going to the Enlightenment – to see the past as a page we have turned, and the future as infinitely malleable to our desires. Girard’s idea that the past is totally mired in scapegoating practices that we must transcend or die, gives a green light to all those who see past has having nothing to teach us. In particular, its social and political institutions are seen as doomed, and.the idea of the social and institutional dimension of human life as a zone for the proper application of human creativity is never once entertained. Girard may not himself have claimed that the future belonged to the individual and his machines; but his theory offers a strong basis for such a conclusion.
Two kinds of positive mimesis
Thiel’s thorough-going individualism is doubtless not the only possible response on the part of people seeking some positive guidance in the work of Girard. What about those Christian theologies, for example, to which I alluded at the beginning of this essay? Were they as conscientiously individualist as the Gospel of Thiel?
There are species of Christianity that have, in varying degrees, rejected institutions; in particular, suspicion around ritual – and ritually-produced structures – is not uncommon. Needless to say, most of the theological readers of Girard of whom I am aware do not, as far as I remember, push their individualism to such lengths. On the other hand, the thinking of these authors is not, on the whole, particularly sociological. It would be fair to say, by and large, they value Church not as an ‘institution’, but rather as a means of transmission for positive mimesis in the interdividual (person to person) sphere. To the extent these theologies still harbour the remnants of a sacramental ecclesiology of Church as body of Christ, those remnants tend to jar with the underlying Girardian paradigm. Nor do these authors give much attention to positive mimesis in the interdividual sphere, beyond its assimilation to ‘the imitation of Christ’ and references to scriptural examples. Largely absent is any attempt to characterize positive mimesis behaviourally in terms of real-life expressions that would distinguish it from the negative mimesis we see elsewhere – notably the behaviours produced by an ideology of concern for the victim.
It is tempting to speak of a ‘sociological deficit’ in regard to the apparent impossibility for Girard of any positive institutionality. It could equally, of course, be seen (for example, by Thiel and his like) not as deficit at all, but a reflection of the sad fact that all institutions and social structures are genuinely of the devil. Perhaps Christians must just try to withdraw from the socio-political sphere altogether so as to live their individual lives as far as possible beyond their influence. Thiel’s road to salvation through technology offers, I suppose, one way for us to move in this direction.
But, I want, at this point, to leave aside the sociological issue, and focus on the characterization of positive mimesis. We can make what we like of Girard’s account of social institutions, and whether our own worldview has a place for a morally positive, Christian, version of these. The question remains (if we are Girardian Christians) what kind of real-life behaviour comes out of the Christian commitment to ‘imitate Christ’, and how it would, in practice, differ from the behaviour coming out of the Antichristian ‘concern for the victim’. More specifically, is there available a viable understanding of the imitation of Christ that distinguishes the latter from ‘concern for the victim’, but is less individualist than Thiel’s?
Our answer to these questions depends on our understanding of Christianity. Taken at face value, the texts of Girard would tend to confine us the idea of it as a gnosis or revelation. This then will determine how we imagine the ‘imitation of Christ’. Whatever our anxiety as opponents of the ‘Antichrist’ to distance ourselves from a politics of victimhood, this can never, of course equate with an indifference to victimhood – since that, on Girard’s analysis, would be tantamount to Nietzschean paganism. We will always be inclined to take the victim’s side. However, unlike the ideologists of concern for the victim, we will do so fully mindful of the danger of promoting the goals of a social solidarity based on victimizing the victimizer. In other words, we will pursue the practical ends of the radical socio-political agenda to which the Gospel calls us. But we will do so in a forgiving, and non-violent, spirit that is opposed to secular mobilization in the interest of the divisive solidarities of identity politics. In practice, this looks like doing the same things but from different motives.
On this analysis, it would seem, then, that the practical difference between Christianity and anti-Christianity resides in the area of personal motivation alone – in the capacity of Christians, that is, to stay aloof from the solidarities otherwise engendered by social mobilization – to engage practically, while maintaining a yogic detachment from political ends. The way of Christ comes to be seen as a spiritual liberation, that empties our actions of an inherent propensity to mould our political identities. Thiel himself exemplifies this view. For him, the role of the Gospel in guiding human action consists in a spiritual liberation from (‘sinful’) imitation, that opens up the path to good (i.e. creative) action. Is this – or something like this – what we mean by the ‘imitation of Christ’?
Not necessarily. There is another way of thinking the imitation of Christ in Girardian terms. But it requires us to move away from the idea of the imitation of Christ as simply gnosis, and no more. Instead, we need to adopt the idea of the imitation of Christ as practice.
According to this second way of thinking, the kind of ‘concern’ that Christians are called to bring to the table is not just ‘concern for the victim’, but ‘concern for the victim and victimizer alike’. That is to say, it is a concern with bringing situations of victimhood to an end. It aims to do so on grounds such situations are ultimately bad for everyone involved. The victimhood in question may result from the scapegoating of the truncated mechanism, such Thiel describes in The Diversity Myth. But it could equally be victimhood associated with the established social and political injustice arising from the scapegoating of the (sometimes distant) past (in which case our interventions, pace Thiel, will generally align with progressive politics). Finally, the victimhood could also be the result of misfortune for which no human responsibility is attributable, such as famine and disease. The practice of the imitation of Christ will involve not just political mobilization but active personal engagement to the end of abolishing victimhood. This engagement can sometimes make one a victim oneself; indeed, given the factious nature of the contemporary culture of concern for the victim, it is highly likely to do so – though the status of victim must never never the thing actively sought. Its very basis is the ethos of forgiveness that aims to bring ultimate reconciliation and restoration. Theologically speaking, the imitation of Christ, when understood as practice, is not so much the imitation of God in creating the world ex nihilo; it is the imitation of Christ, who is God engaging to end human victimhood by direct personal engagement. This sometimes involves technical innovation; but, where it does so, that technology will serve a social and political end, which is the consolidation and extension of the Kingdom of God and body of Christ. It is to goals of that institution that we refer for a standard by which a technology should be considered good or bad for human prospering. At least one area of technological innovation favoured by Thiel would, I can safely predict, fail the test: cryonics.
Why read Girard?
We have reached the end of what I have to say about Thiel and Girard. I feel some kind of conclusion is needed to round things off. Yet, I don’t know that I have one. Suffice it to say, that Thiel is not unfaithful to Girard; after all, he takes that theory in a direction that it seems asking to be taken. Needless to say, there are, as just indicated, other ways of interpreting the theory which would be as faithful to Girard’s texts, and yet more properly Christian.
This is all rather disappointing given the reasons I had for setting out on this enquiry. I propose to conclude by reflecting on them.
Fundamentally, I wanted to defend Girard – and to do so for the benefit of the current generation of potential readers. I am not a convinced Girardian; but I find his interpretations of many texts very compelling, and I have always seen Girard’s eccentric spiritual journey to faith through the study of such texts as a powerfully independent testimony to Christian truth in a world – that of academe – not nowadays receptive to the Gospel. I was personally introduced to Girard’s work at a university undergraduate lecture on Proust. All of a sudden, a bunch of students, brought together in order to study the great literature of France, were, almost despite ourselves, confronted with his understanding of Christian revelation – make of it, what we would!
In particular, the analysis of the last four chapters of I See Satan struck me, on first reading, as astonishingly prescient of the contemporary ‘culture wars’. I would have been glad to be able to recommend the Girardian analysis to people of the generation currently caught up in those struggles (of whom I know one or two). Perhaps the acuity with which their own predicament had been foreseen might induce them, like the readers of Proust in my university class, to consider with fresh eyes the biblical texts underlying the Girard’s understanding of the Christian revelation.
Sadly, I don’t for a moment now believe such people would share the political innocence of my initial reading of Girard’s text. The aggravation of the culture wars has seen to that. I needed the assistance of Thiel to discern the reactionary leanings of those chapters. Yet, even I find myself needing a serious dose of exegesis to order to think myself into a more favourable interpretation. I don’t think contemporary readers will bother.
There are books to which history is not merciful. And sadly, I Saw Satan must join the long procession of Christian texts that have become ‘off limits’ for anybody of even moderately progressive views. I personally may continue to have ‘my own’ Girard; but, regretfully, I must now accept that I won’t be able to communicate that Girard to anyone else.
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